Table 6 Results of multilevel linear mixed-effect for out-of-pocket health expenditures

MLM effect model

Fixed effect model

Pooled regression model

MLM effect model

Fixed effect model

Pooled regression model

Variable

robust

robust

robust

robust

robust

robust

Log GDP per capita

0.0062

-0.0254

0.1438***

0.0894*

0.0132

0.0857

(0.0368)

(0.0410)

(0.0418)

(0.0536)

(0.0614)

(0.0540)

Log POP above 65 years old

0.3353***

0.3979***

-0.0072

-0.3823***

-0.3644***

-0.2536***

(0.0521)

(0.0546)

(0.0725)

(0.0771)

(0.0818)

(0.0936)

Log POP below 15 years old

-0.3295***

-0.4569***

0.1185

-0.4825***

-0.4993***

-0.1847

(0.1021)

(0.1057)

(0.1539)

(0.1515)

(0.1584)

(0.1988)

Log urbanization

-0.2722***

-0.2453***

-0.1788***

0.0710

0.1120

-0.0969**

(0.0576)

(0.0736)

(0.0320)

(0.0815)

(0.1103)

(0.0413)

Log life expectancy at birth

1.1005***

1.1891***

0.7195***

1.4760***

1.5522***

0.7113***

(0.0979)

(0.1038)

(0.1381)

(0.1446)

(0.1556)

(0.1783)

Log external health exp. per capita

0.0160***

0.0124**

0.1269***

-0.0053

-0.0046

0.1266***

(0.0053)

(0.0054)

(0.0111)

(0.0079)

(0.0080)

(0.0143)

Log sanitation

-0.1384***

-0.1322***

0.0079

-0.2937***

-0.3439***

-0.0053

(0.0242)

(0.0259)

(0.0205)

(0.0356)

(0.0388)

(0.0264)

Log DPT immunization

-0.0962***

-0.0790***

-0.1729***

0.1260***

0.1156***

0.0430

(0.0284)

(0.0292)

(0.0497)

(0.0424)

(0.0437)

(0.0642)

Antiretroviral Therapy

-0.0087

-0.0148**

-0.0320**

0.0421***

0.0434***

-0.0297

(0.0068)

(0.0070)

(0.0144)

(0.0101)

(0.0104)

(0.0186)

Log trade

0.0037

0.0107

0.0790***

-0.0492**

-0.0546**

0.0695***

(0.0148)

(0.0157)

(0.0185)

(0.0218)

(0.0236)

(0.0239)

Log government health exp. per capita

0.0114

0.0063

0.0529

0.0337

0.0341

0.0720*

(0.0147)

(0.0149)

(0.0336)

(0.0220)

(0.0224)

(0.0434)

Log governance quality

-0.1162***

-0.1060***

-0.2719***

-0.0367

-0.0209

-0.2923***

(0.0194)

(0.0202)

(0.0259)

(0.0287)

(0.0302)

(0.0334)

Log Information and communication technologies

0.0255***

0.0254***

0.0106

-0.0720***

-0.0661***

-0.0470*

(0.0082)

(0.0083)

(0.0196)

(0.0122)

(0.0125)

(0.0253)

Log government compulsory health care financing schemes

-0.0098

-0.0066

-0.0210

-0.0377

-0.0510**

0.1540***

(0.0167)

(0.0170)

(0.0395)

(0.0250)

(0.0254)

(0.0511)

Constant

-2.6026***

-2.5282***

-4.2321***

-5.9547***

-5.4746***

-5.1389***

(0.6064)

(0.6295)

(1.0549)

(0.9012)

(0.9432)

(1.3623)

Observations

1,218

1,218

1,218

1,218

1,218

1,218

R-squared

0.2241

0.2311

Prob > F

0.000

0.000

Prob > chibar2

0.000

0.000

Prob >Chi2

0.000

0.000