Table 3 Evidence generated by NGOs in monitoring and campaigning

• Scientific studies [21, 22, 59, 83, 115, 116, 120, 136]. For example, NGOs in India conducted a study of Coca Cola products, identifying pesticide residue, informing a campaign against the company [22]

• Human Rights Impact Assessments [23]

• Specific health evidence [60, 83,84,85, 108, 121, 122, 149]. For example, an NGO produced a study of cancer risks from a company pesticide, informing a boycott and media campaign [59]

• Purchasing power studies [52]

• Public opinion polling [39, 61, 83, 121, 149]

• Economic evidence [83, 115, 121, 122]

• Personal stories [69]

• Local evidence—highlighted as important to support transnational NGO campaigns on the ground [108]

• One study comparing the success and failure of different NGO campaigns asserted that success was due to presenting evidence as legitimate knowledge, and in particular epidemiological data as a source of legitimate knowledge [9, 111, 154,155,156,157]