Effects of foreign direct investment and trade on the prevalence of tobacco consumption in Africa: a panel study

Table 3 Effects of FDI and trade on the prevalence of tobacco consumption (Robustness checks)

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)
	Prevalence of tobacco use	Prevalence of tobacco use	Prevalence of tobacco use	Prevalence of tobacco use
L.Prevalence of tobacco use	0.975^***	0.963^***	0.962^***	0.994^***
L.Prevalence of tobacco use	(0.0234)	(0.00973)	(0.0195)	(0.0197)
Tobacco tax	0.00520	−0.00604^*	− 0.00135	− 0.00909
Tobacco tax	(0.00561)	(0.00349)	(0.0125)	(0.00845)
L.Trade openness	0.167^*
L.Trade openness	(0.0845)
Income	0.00760	0.0205^*	0.0425^*	−0.00524
Income	(0.00698)	(0.0119)	(0.0212)	(0.0105)
Education	0.0138^***	0.0113^***	0.00298	−0.0112
Education	(0.00299)	(0.00260)	(0.00826)	(0.00771)
L.Imports		0.00733^**
L.Imports		(0.00348)
L.FDI inflows			−0.00727^*
L.FDI inflows			(0.00393)
L.KOF trade globalisation index				0.0115^**
L.KOF trade globalisation index				(0.00442)
L.Chinn-Ito index of capital openness				−0.0741^*
L.Chinn-Ito index of capital openness				(0.0420)
Constant	−1.688^***	−1.046^***	−0.0109	0.817
Constant	(0.204)	(0.247)	(0.723)	(0.720)
Observations	216	216	217	217
Countries	31	31	31	31
Instruments	24	27	21	24
AR(2)	−1.233	0.372	−1.097	−1.379
AR(2) p-value	0.218	0.710	0.273	0.168
Hansen	13.32	11.57	4.151	8.980
Hansen p-value	0.346	0.712	0.901	0.774
F stat	15,428.4	7834.9	2903.3	5706.0
F stat p-value	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000

Standard errors in parentheses; ^* p < 0.1, ^** p < 0.05, ^*** p < 0.01; L. refers to the first lag of the respective variable; Year dummies are not reported for brevity; The null hypotheses of the Hansen and the AR (2) tests state the joint validity of the instruments and the absence of second-order serial correlation respectively [30, 32]

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