Table 3 Predictors for fear of COVID-19 among the study participants (based on the FCV-19S score)

Age groups

5710

75.20

1886

24.8

 18-29 years

2777

75.8

883

24.1

 30-59 years

2661

73.8

942

26.1

0.047

1.11

1.00-1.24

0.004

1.35

1.10-1.64

 ≥60 years

272

81.6

61

18.3

0.017

0.71

0.53-0.94

0.184

1.40

0.86-2.30

Gender

6383

75.6

2055

24.4

 Male

2305

76.8

695

23.20

 Female

4078

74.9

1360

25.1

0.059

1.11

0.99-1.23

0.001

1.51

1.25-1.83

Born in the same country of residence

6365

75.5

2059

24.4

 No

933

72.4

355

27.6

 Yes

5432

76.1

1704

23.8

0.005

0.82

0.72-0.94

0.001

0.66

0.51-0.85

Living status

6354

75.6

2050

24.4

 Live without family members

1322

69.6

577

30.4

 Live with family members

5032

77.4

1473

22.6

<0.001

0.67

0.6-0.75

0.431

1.10

0.86-1.41

Highest educational/vocational qualification

6359

75.6

2052

24.4

 Primary/Grade 1 to 6

47

79.6

12

20.3

 Secondary/Higher Secondary/Grade 7 to 12

1176

76.3

366

23.7

0.547

1.22

0.64-2.32

0.569

1.41

0.44-4.55

 Certificate/Diploma/Trade qualifications

626

71.8

245

28.1

0.198

1.53

0.8-2.93

0.298

1.87

0.57-6.09

 Bachelor/Masters/PhD

4510

75.9

1429

24.1

0.506

1.24

0.66-2.35

0.689

1.27

0.40-4.05

Current employment condition

6174

75.6

1994

24.4

 Unemployed/Housewife/Home maker/Home duties (No source of income)

433

67.3

210

32.6

 Jobs affected by COVID-19 (lost job/working hours reduced/afraid of job loss)

3304

80.1

821

19.9

<0.001

0.51

0.42-0.61

 Have an income source (employed/Government benefits)

2437

71.7

963

28.3

0.026

0.81

0.68-0.98

0.588

1.05

0.87-1.27

Perceived distress due to change of employment status

5772

75.7

1847

24.2

 A little to none

3767

80.1

939

19.9

 Moderate to a great deal

2005

68.8

908

31.2

<0.001

1.82

1.63-2.02

<0.001

1.52

1.27-1.82

Improved working situation due to change of employment status

4570

78.5

1251

21.5

 A little to none

3566

79.7

906

20.3

 Moderate to a great deal

1004

74.4

345

25.6

<0.001

1.35

1.17-1.56

0.401

1.08

0.9-1.32

Self-identification as a frontline or essential service worker

6398

75.7

2052

24.3

 No

3839

76.3

1191

23.7

 Yes

2559

74.8

861

25.2

0.115

1.08

0.99-1.2

0.001

1.47

1.20-1.82

Self-identification as a healthcare worker

4950

78.7

1339

21.3

 No

2990

77.8

853

22.2

 Yes, doctor

712

80.4

174

19.6

0.096

0.86

0.71-1.03

<0.001

0.55

0.41-0.76

 Yes, nurse

838

81.2

194

18.8

0.018

0.81

0.68-0.97

0.053

0.75

0.56-1.01

 Yes, other healthcare worker

410

77.6

118

22.4

0.937

1.01

0.81-1.26

0.131

0.79

0.58-1.07

COVID-19 impacted financial situation

6418

75.6

2066

24.4

 No impact

3053

80.8

725

19.2

 Yes, impacted positively

768

75.5

249

24.5

<0.001

1.37

1.16-1.61

0.075

1.29

0.98-1.70

 Yes, impacted negatively

2597

70.4

1092

29.6

<0.001

1.77

1.6-1.97

0.004

1.36

1.11-1.68

Affected by the change in financial situation

4813

78.6

1308

21.4

 Not at all

1201

85.9

196

14

 Unsure

724

79.4

188

20.6

<0.001

1.59

1.28-1.98

0.149

1.23

0.93-1.64

 Somewhat

2169

78.3

600

21.7

<0.001

1.69

1.42-2.02

0.033

1.32

1.02-1.08

 A great extent

719

68.9

324

31.1

<0.001

2.76

2.26-3.37

0.021

1.44

1.06-1.96

Co-morbidities

6345

75.7

2032

24.3

 No

4645

78.1

1303

21.9

 Psychiatric/Mental health problem

248

68.7

113

31.3

<0.001

1.62

1.29-2.05

0.984

1.00

0.64-1.60

 Other co-morbidities*

1452

70.2

616

29.8

<0.001

1.51

1.35-1.7

0.001

1.71

1.25-2.32

Co-morbidities

6059

76.1

1910

23.9

 No

4645

78.1

1303

21.9

 Single co-morbidity

1096

70.9

451

29.2

<0.001

1.47

1.29-1.66

0.021

0.69

0.51-0.95

 Multiple co-morbidities

318

67.1

156

32.9

<0.001

1.75

1.43-2.14

Perceived status of own mental health

4950

78.7

1339

21.3

 Poor to Fair

1190

67.9

563

32.1

 Good to Excellent

3760

82.9

776

17.1

<0.001

0.44

0.39-0.5

<0.001

0.72

0.60-0.86

Smoking

6420

75.6

2065

24.3

 Never smoker

5251

76.1

1647

23.8

 Ever smoker (Daily/Non-daily/Ex)

1169

73.6

418

26.3

0.039

1.14

1.01-1.30

0.708

1.04

0.84-1.31

Increased smoking over the last 6 months

758

74.7

256

25.3

 No

418

78.1

117

21.9

 Yes

340

70.9

139

29

0.009

1.46

1.1-1.94

Current alcohol drinking (last 4 weeks)

6309

75.6

2035

24.4

 No

5646

76.1

1776

23.9

 Yes

663

71.9

259

28.1

0.006

1.24

1.07-1.45

0.038

1.33

1.02-1.73

Increased alcohol drinking over the last 6 months

658

72.1

255

27.9

 No

511

79.7

130

20.3

 Yes

147

54.1

125

45.9

<0.001

3.34

2.46-4.54

Contact with known/suspected case of COVID-19

6292

75.6

2031

24.4

 No

3769

771

1117

22.9

 Unsure

488

68.8

221

31.2

<0.001

1.53

1.29-1.82

0.006

1.41

1.10-1.80

 Yes, had indirect contact

722

75.8

230

24.2

0.384

1.07

0.92-1.26

0.713

1.04

0.86-1.35

 Yes, provided direct care

1313

73.9

463

26.1

0.007

1.19

1.04-1.35

0.782

0.97

0.76-1.23

Experience related to COVID-19 pandemic

6155

75.5

2000

24.5

 No known exposure to COVID-19

4833

76.4

1490

23.6

 Tested positive for COVID-19

391

79.2

103

20.8

0.170

0.85

0.68-1.07

0.175

0.80

0.57-1.11

 Tested negative for COVID-19 by self-isolated

791

69.8

342

30.2

<0.001

1.40

1.22-1.61

0.336

1.12

0.89-1.41

 Had recent overseas travel history and was in quarantine

140

68.3

65

31.7

0.007

1.51

1.12-2.03

0.808

0.93

0.54-1.61

Self-identification as a patient (visited a healthcare provider in the last 6 months)

6273

75.5

2031

24.5

 No

4247

76.5

1308

23.6

 Yes

2026

73.7

723

26.3

0.006

1.16

1.04-1.29

0.217

0.90

0.76-1.06

Healthcare service use in the last 6 months

1973

72.4

754

27.6

 In-person visit to a healthcare provider

1413

74.5

483

25.5

 Telehealth consultation/Use of national helpline

426

66.9

210

33

<0.001

1.44

1.19-1.75

 Used both services

134

68.7

61

31.3

0.079

1.33

0.97-1.83

Level of psychological distress (K10 categories)

6416

75.7

2063

24.3

 Low (score 10-15)

2328

88.4

306

11.6

 Moderate to Very High (score 16-50)

4088

69.9

1757

30.1

<0.001

3.26

2.87-3.72

<0.001

3.36

2.67-4.23

Level of coping (BRCS categories)

6418

75.7

2061

24.3

 Low resilient copers (score 4-13)

2647

72.2

1018

27.8

 Medium to high resilient copers (score 14-20)

3771

78.3

1043

21.7

<0.001

0.72

0.65-0.80

<0.001

0.74

0.63-0.87

Healthcare service use to overcome COVID-19 related stress in the last 6 months

6243

75.6

2020

24.5

 No

5595

77.9

1587

22.1

 Yes

648

59.9

433

40.1

<0.001

2.35

2.06-2.70

<0.001

2.42

1.96-3.01