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Table 2 Predictors for psychological distress among the study participants (based on the K-10 score)

From: COVID-19: Factors associated with psychological distress, fear, and coping strategies among community members across 17 countries

Characteristics

Low (score 10-15)

Moderate to Very High (score 16-50)

Unadjusted analyses

Adjusted analyses

n

%

n

%

p

ORs

95% CIs

p

AORs

95% CIs

Age groups

2434

32.1

5157

67.9

      

 18-29 years

775

21.1

2884

78.8

Ref

Ref

 30-59

1429

39.7

2170

60.3

<0.001

0.41

0.37-0.45

<0.001

0.50

0.41-0.61

 ≥60 years

230

69.1

103

30.9

<0.001

0.12

0.08-0.15

<0.001

0.15

0.09-0.23

Gender

2622

31.1

5810

68.9

      

 Male

1100

36.7

1898

63.3

Ref

Ref

 Female

1522

28

3912

71.9

<0.001

1.50

1.36-1.64

0.003

1.31

1.09-1.57

Born in the same country of residence

2611

31

5807

68.9

      

 No

421

32.7

864

67.2

Ref

Ref

 Yes

2190

30.7

4943

69.3

0.118

1.06

0.96-1.18

0.193

1.18

0.92-1.52

Living status

2609

31.1

5790

68.9

      

 Live without family members

608

32.1

1289

67.9

Ref

Ref

 Live with family members

2001

30.9

4501

69.2

0.133

1.09

0.97-1.24

0.064

1.25

0.99-1.56

Highest educational/vocational qualification

2603

30.9

5803

69.03

      

 Primary/Grade 1 to 6

20

33.9

39

66.1

Ref

Ref

 Secondary/Higher Secondary/Grade 7 to 12

373

24.2

1168

75.8

0.100

1.61

0.91-2.83

0.375

0.53

0.13-2.14

 Certificate/Diploma/Trade qualifications

269

30.9

601

68.1

0.605

1.16

0.65-2.06

0.231

0.43

0.11-1.72

 Bachelor/Masters/PhD

1941

32.7

3995

67.3

0.848

1.06

0.61-1.84

0.247

0.44

0.11-1.75

Current employment condition

2565

31.4

5597

68.5

      

 Unemployed/Housewife/Home maker/Home duties (No source of income)

242

37.6

401

62.4

Ref

Ref

 Jobs affected by COVID-19 (lost job/working hours reduced/afraid of job loss)

1499

36.4

2623

63.6

0.481

1.06

0.89-1.26

No estimates due to small number

 Have an income source (employed/Government benefits)

824

24.3

2573

75.4

<0.001

1.88

1.58-2.25

0.003

1.35

1.10-1.63

Perceived distress due to change of employment status

2317

30.5

5300

69.6

      

 A little to none

1735

36.8

2970

63.1

Ref

Ref

 Moderate to a great deal

582

19.9

2330

80.01

<0.001

2.38

2.1-2.61

<0.001

1.56

1.29-1.90

Improved working situation due to change of employment status

1730

29.7

4092

70.3

      

 A little to none

1373

30.6

3100

69.3

Ref

Ref

 Moderate to a great deal

357

26.5

992

73.5

0.022

1.23

1.07-1.41

0.723

0.97

0.80-1.18

Self-identification as a frontline or essential service worker

2621

31.1

5823

68.9

      

 No

1588

31.6

3437

68.4

Ref

Ref

 Yes

1033

30.2

2386

69.7

0.084

1.07

0.98-1.19

0.830

0.98

0.79-1.21

Self-identification as a healthcare worker

1874

29.8

4416

70.2

      

 No

1072

27.8

2771

72.1

Ref

Ref

 Yes, doctor

261

29.4

626

70.6

0.291

0.92

0.78-1.08

0.028

1.43

1.04-1.97

 Yes, nurse

395

38.3

637

61.7

<0.001

0.63

0.54-0.72

0.375

1.13

0.86-1.5

 Yes, other healthcare worker

146

27.6

382

72.4

0.893

1.01

0.82-1.25

0.521

1.11

0.81-1.52

COVID-19 impacted financial situation

2634

31.1

5845

68.9

      

 No impact

1479

39.2

2297

60.8

Ref

Ref

 Yes, impacted positively

292

28.7

725

71.3

<0.001

1.59

1.37-1.86

0.330

1.14

0.88-1.48

 Yes, impacted negatively

863

23.4

2823

76.6

<0.001

2.10

1.89-2.32

0.770

1.03

0.84-1.27

Affected by the change in financial situation

1814

29.6

4308

70.4

      

 Not at all

690

49.4

707

50.6

Ref

Ref

 Unsure

268

29.4

644

70.6

<0.001

2.35

1.96-2.80

<0.001

1.69

1.32-2.16

 Somewhat

710

25.6

2060

74.4

<0.001

2.83

2.47-3.24

<0.001

1.64

1.32-2.03

 A great extent

146

14

897

86

<0.001

5.99

4.89-7.35

<0.001

2.36

1.72-3.23

Co-morbidities

2601

31.1

5770

68.9

      

 No

1926

32.3

4020

67.6

Ref

Ref

 Psychiatric/Mental health problem

31

8.7

327

91.3

<0.001

5.04

3.47-7.32

0.019

3.02

1.20-7.60

 Other co-morbidities*

644

31.2

1423

68.8

0.436

1.04

0.94-1.17

0.147

1.30

0.91-1.82

Co-morbidities

2465

30.9

5502

69.1

      

 No

1926

32.4

4020

67.6

Ref

Ref

 Single co-morbidity

411

26.6

1136

73.4

0.001

1.32

1.17-1.50

0.859

0.97

0.67-1.40

 Multiple co-morbidities

128

27

346

73

0.114

1.30

1.05-1.60

No estimates due to small number

Perceived status of own mental health

1874

29.8

4416

70.2

      

 Poor to Fair

131

7.5

1622

92.5

Ref

Ref

 Good to Excellent

1743

38.4

2794

61.6

<0.001

0.13

0.11-0.16

<0.001

0.17

0.13-0.22

Smoking

2634

31.1

5846

68.9

      

 Never smoker

2226

32.3

4668

67.6

Ref

Ref

 Ever smoker (Daily/Non-daily/Ex)

408

25.7

1178

74.3

<0.001

1.38

1.22-1.56

0.434

1.10

0.87-1.39

Increased smoking over the last 6 months

206

20.3

808

79.7

      

 No

151

28.2

384

71.9

Ref

Not included in multivariate model

 Yes

55

11.5

424

88.5

<0.000

3.03

2.16-4.25

Current alcohol drinking (last 4 weeks)

2583

30.9

5755

69.02

      

 No

2314

31.2

5104

68.7

Ref

Ref

 Yes

269

29.2

651

70.7

0.199

1.10

0.95-1.28

0.069

1.29

0.99-1.68

Increased alcohol drinking over the last 6 months

266

29.2

645

70.8

      

 No

235

36.9

404

63.2

Ref

Not included in multivariate model

 Yes

31

11.4

241

88.6

<0.001

4.52

3.01-6.80

Contact with known/suspected case of COVID-19

2574

30.9

5743

69.1

      

 No

1754

35.9

3127

64.1

Ref

Ref

 Unsure

141

19.9

567

80.1

<0.001

2.26

1.85-2.73

<0.001

1.80

1.36-2.40

 Yes, had indirect contact

223

23.4

729

76.5

<0.001

1.83

1.55-2.16

0.019

1.32

1.04-1.67

 Yes, provided direct care

456

25.6

1320

74.3

<0.001

1.63

1.44-1.85

0.814

1.03

0.81-1.30

Experience related to COVID-19 pandemic

2518

30.9

5631

69.1

      

 No known exposure to COVID-19

2095

33.2

4224

66.8

Ref

Ref

 Tested positive for COVID-19

124

25.2

369

74.8

<0.001

1.48

1.2-1.82

0.988

1.00

0.72-1.38

 Tested negative for COVID-19 by self-isolated

256

22.6

876

77.3

<0.001

1.69

1.45-1.97

0.086

1.24

0.97-1.58

 Had recent overseas travel history and was in quarantine

43

20.9

162

79.02

0.002

1.87

1.32-2.62

0.696

1.12

0.64-1.93

Self-identification as a patient (visited a healthcare provider in the last 6 months)

2579

31.1

5719

68.9

      

 No

1945

35.1

3606

64.9

Ref

Ref

 Yes

634

23.1

2113

76.9

<0.001

1.80

1.61-2.00

<0.001

1.67

1.40-1.99

Healthcare service use in the last 6 months

646

23.7

2079

76.3

      

 In-person visit to a healthcare provider

493

26.1

1401

73.9

Ref

Ref

 Telehealth consultation/Use of national helpline

120

18.9

516

81.1

<0.001

1.51

1.21-1.89

Not included in multivariate model

 Used both services

33

16.9

162

83.1

0.005

1.72

1.17-2.54

Level of fear of COVID-19 (FCV-19S categories)

2634

31.1

5845

68.9

      

 Low (score 7-21)

2328

36.3

4088

63.7

Ref

Ref

 High (score 22-35)

306

14.8

1757

85.2

<0.001

3.27

2.87-3.73

<0.001

3.26

2.57-4.13

Level of coping (BRCS categories)

2633

31.1

5840

68.9

      

 Low resilient copers (score 4-13)

1011

27.6

2648

72.4

Ref

Ref

 Medium to high resilient copers (score 14-20)

1622

33.7

3192

66.3

<0.001

0.75

0.69-0.82

0.637

0.96

0.81-1.14

Healthcare service use to overcome COVID-19 related stress in the last 6 months

2560

31

5697

69

      

 No

2422

33.7

4754

66.3

Ref

Ref

 Yes

138

12.8

943

69

<0.001

3.48

2.89-4.19

<0.001

1.99

1.45-2.72

  1. Adjusted for: age, gender, smoking, alcohol intake, living status, place of birth, country, education, employment status, employment stress, healthcare worker, financial impact, contact with COVID-19 case, experience due to COVID-19 and self-identification as a patient
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Globalization and Health

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