Table 4 Results of subgroup analyses for those populations and outcomes with at least k = 4 studies in main analysis
Subgroup analysis (subgroups) | Outcome | Test for subgroup differencesa | Population | Subgroup difference: elevated effectb | Subgroup difference: reduced effectb |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Population characteristics (main studies) | |||||
Age • 30 years • > 30 ≤ 35 years • > 35 ≤ 40 years • > 40 ≤ 45 years • multiple age groups • age not specified | Anxiety | Chi2 = 9.5, df = 5 (p = .09) | GP | / | / |
Depression | Chi2 = 29.3, df = 5 (p < .001) | GP | ≤30 years; > 40 ≤ 45 years | / | |
Stress | Chi2 = 1043.3, df = 4 (p < .001) | GP | / | > 40 ≤ 45 years | |
Anxiety | Chi2 = 8.7, df = 4 (p = .07) | HCW | / | / | |
Depression | Chi2 = 2.2, df = 1 (p = .14) | HCW | / | / | |
Sleep | Chi2 = 0.3, df = 1 (p = .57) | HCW | / | / | |
Anxiety | Chi2 = 17.14, df = 4 (p = .002) | P | > 40 ≤ 45 years |  | |
Depression | Chi2 = 3.74, df = 4 (p = .44) | P | / | / | |
Stressor exposure • General population • Students • Others • Special exposure | Anxiety | Chi2 = 2.8, df = 3 (p = .42) | GP | / | / |
Depression | Chi2 = 1.9, df = 3 (p = .60) | GP | / | / | |
Stress | Chi2 = 0.12, df = 3 (p = .99) | GP | / | / | |
Covid-19 patient contact • Low contact risk • High contact risk | Anxiety | Chi2 = 0, df = 1 (p = .95) | HCW | / | / |
Depression | Chi2 = 1.0, df = 1 (p = .31) | HCW | / | / | |
Sleep | Chi2 = 0.2, df = 1 (p = .69) | HCW | / | / | |
Subgroup of patients • COVID-19 patients • Pregnant women • Psychiatric patients | Anxiety | Chi2 = 0.3, df = 2 (p = .88) | P | / | / |
Depression | Chi2 = 1.3, df = 2 (p = .51) | P | / | / | |
Pandemic study characteristics | |||||
Survey startc • ≤4 weeks • > 4 ≤ 6 weeks • > 6 ≤ 8 weeks • > 8 weeks • not specified | Anxiety | Chi2 = 3.55, df = 4 (p = .47) | GP | / | / |
Depression | Chi2 = 10.15, df = 4 (p = .04) | GP | > 8 weeks | / | |
Stress | Chi2 = 0.31, df = 4 (p = .99) | GP | / | / | |
Anxiety | Chi2 = 7.91, df = 4 (p = .10) | HCW | / | / | |
Depression | Chi2 = 0.95, df = 2 (p = .62) | HCW | / | / | |
Sleep | Chi2 = 4.21, df = 2 (p = .12) | HCW | / | / | |
Anxiety | Chi2 = 4.58, df = 2 (p = .10) | P | / | / | |
Depression | Chi2 = 3.08, df = 3 (p = .38) | P | / | / | |
Study conduction China • China • Non-China | Anxiety | Chi2 = 0.10, df = 1 (p = .75) | GP | / | / |
Depression | Chi2 = 0.60, df = 1 (p = .44) | GP | / | / | |
Stress | Chi2 = 0.10, df = 1 (p = .76) | GP | / | / | |
Anxiety | Chi2 = 2.84, df = 1 (p = .09) | HCW | / | / | |
Depression | Chi2 = 0.08, df = 1 (p = .78) | HCW | / | / | |
Sleep | Chi2 = 0.32, df = 1 (p = .57) | HCW | / | / | |
Anxiety | Chi2 = 3.35, df = 1 (p = .07) | P | / | / | |
Depression | Chi2 = 0.62, df = 1 (p = .43) | P | / | / | |
Outcome measure • AIS • BDI • DASS-21 • EDPS • EPDS-3A • GAD-2; GAD-7 • HADS • HAMA • HAMD • ISI • PHQ-2; PHQ-9 • PSQI • PSS • SAS • SDS • SCL-90 • STAI-Y | Anxiety | Chi2 = 10.7, df = 6 (p = .10) | GP | / | / |
Depression | Chi2 = 11.46, df = 5 (p = .04) | GP | PHQ-2 | / | |
Stress | Chi2 = 0.16, df = 1 (p = .69) | GP | / | / | |
Anxiety | Chi2 = 2.80, df = 4 (p = .59) | HCW | / | / | |
Depression | Chi2 = 2.91, df = 3 (p = .41) | HCW | / | / | |
Sleep | Chi2 = 0.32, df = 1 (p = .57) | HCW | / | / | |
Anxiety | Chi2 = 1.18, df = 4 (p = .88) | P | / | / | |
Depression | Chi2 = 16.95, df = 5 (p = .005) | P | SDS; PHQ-9 | / | |
Sample size • < 1000 • ≥1000 | Anxiety | Chi2 = 1.86, df = 1 (p = .17) | GP | / | / |
Depression | Chi2 = 0.03, df = 1 (p = .86) | GP | / | / | |
Stress | Chi2 = 2.31, df = 1 (p = .13) | GP | / | / | |
Anxiety | Chi2 = 2.83, df = 1 (p = .09) | HCW | / | / | |
Depression | Chi2 = 0, df = 1 (p = .96) | HCW | / | / | |
Sleep | not possible | HCW | / | / | |
Anxiety | Chi2 = 3.60, df = 1 (p = .06) | P | / | / | |
Depression | Chi2 = 0.09, df = 1 (p = .77) | P | / | / | |
Comparative study characteristics | |||||
Sample size • ≤500 • > 1000 ≤ 5000 • > 5000 ≤ 10,000 • > 10,000 | Anxiety | Chi2 = 0.9, df = 3 (p = .83) | GP | / | / |
Depression | Chi2 = 3.5, df = 4 (p = .48) | GP | / | / | |
Stress | Chi2 = 8.6, df = 3 (p = .03) | GP | / | > 5000 ≤ 10,000 participants | |
Anxiety | Chi2 = 9.93, df = 3 (p = .02) | HCW | > 5000 ≤ 10,000 participants |  | |
Depression | Chi2 = 4.3, df = 2 (p = .12) | HCW | / | / | |
Sleep | Chi2 = 0.3, df = 1 (p = .57) | HCW | / | / | |
Anxiety | Chi2 = 0.1, df = 2 (p = .97) | P | / | / | |
Depression | Chi2 = 3.9, df = 2 (p = .14) | P | / | / | |
Publication year • ≤1 year ago • ≤2 years ago • > 2 ≤ 5 years ago • > 5 ≤ 10 years ago • > 10 years ago | Anxiety | Chi2 = 8.0, df = 5 (p = .16) | GP | / | / |
Depression | Chi2 = 12.4, df = 5 (p = .03) | GP | > 10 years ago | / | |
Stress | Chi2 = 11.6, df = 4 (p = .02) | GP | / | ≤1 year ago | |
Anxiety | Chi2 = 14.5, df = 3 (p = .002) | HCW | > 10 years ago | ≤2 years ago | |
Depression | Chi2 = 4.6, df = 1 (p = .03) | HCW | / | ≤2 years ago | |
Sleep | not possible | HCW | / | / | |
Anxiety | Chi2 = 0.1, df = 2 (p = .94) | P | / | / | |
Depression | Chi2 = 17.0, df = 5 (p = .005) | P | ≤1 year ago; > 5 ≤ 10 years ago | / | |
Pandemic and comparative study characteristics | |||||
Relationship samples sizesd • Ratio ≥ 2 • Ratio ≥ 0.5 < 2 • Ratio ≥ 0.1 < 0.5 • Ratio < 0.1 | Anxiety | Chi2 = 10.0, df = 3 (p = .02) | GP | Ratio ≥ 0.5 < 2 | / |
Depression | Chi2 = 4.8, df = 3 (p = .19) | GP | / | / | |
Stress | Chi2 = 0.4, df = 2 (p = .84) | GP | / | / | |
Anxiety | Chi2 = 4.2, df = 2 (p = .12) | HCW | / | / | |
Depression | Chi2 = 3.8, df = 2 (p = .15) | HCW | / | / | |
Sleep | Chi2 = 0.32, df = 1 (p = .57) | HCW | / | / | |
Anxiety | Chi2 = 17.7, df = 3 (p < .001) | P | Ratio ≥ 0.5 < 2; Ratio < 0.1 | / | |
Depression | Chi2 = 3.0, df = 3 (p = .39) | P | / | / | |