Table 1 Preventing and managing conflicts of interest

Proposed frameworks for addressing conflicts of interest centre on policy mechanisms and cultural change to encourage ethical conduct and voluntary compliance. Examples of specific interventions include [1, 11]:

• Policies that define a relevant conflict of interest in the specific decision-making context and why it matters;

• Disclosure mechanisms that specify what, when, and how interests should be disclosed, whether and how they are verified, how a conflict of interest is evaluated and the subsequent response (if any);

• Committee selection processes that account for conflicts of interest, including how members are identified and their qualifications;

• Practical, system-level measures to prevent conflicts of interest;

• Specific management strategies to reduce the likelihood that conflicts of interest will pose a risk to the individual’s primary obligation;

• Transparency mechanisms that make disclosures, policies, management strategies, and decision-making publicly available and accessible; and

• Oversight mechanisms for monitoring, enforcement, and grievances.