Table 2 Definitions and measures of transnationalisma
1st author, year (reference #) | Study’s definition of Transnationalism | Administration Method | Languageb, Translationc | No. of items | Response format Y/N = Yes / No format | Transnationalism dimension assessed | Quality appraisal Internal consistency (C)d | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Social | Cultural | Economic | Political | Attitude/Identity | Healthcare | ||||||||
1 | Afulani, 2015 [27] | Process by which migrants forge and sustain social relations that link their country of origin and destination country, or the maintenance of activities that require regular contact across borders | In-person interview | French (SL) Unspecified mother tongue (O)e | 9 | Y/N (then scored out of 9) | X | X | X | X | C = 0.60 | ||
Afulani, 2016 [21] | |||||||||||||
2 | Alcantara, 2015 [29] | Frequent and enduring social, economic, political, or cultural ties between two or more countries | In-person interview | Eng (SL) Spa (?)f | 2 | Continuous | X | X | |||||
Alcantara, 2015 [28] | 2 | Y/N & continuous | X | X | |||||||||
Gelatt, 2013 [34] | The process by which immigrants build social fields that link together their country of origin and destination country | Eng (SL) Unspecified mother tongue (?)f | 4 | Y/N & categorical | X | X | X | ||||||
Torres, 2016 [22] | The dual involvement of migrants in social life, religious and cultural practices, healthcare and social service systems, and political activities and entrepreneurial ventures across nation-state boundaries | Eng (SL) Spa (?)f | 2 | Y/N & categorical | X | X | |||||||
Torres, 2019 [43] | Immigrants’ contact with family and friends in their country of origin through long-distance communication, remittance-sending, political participation and return visits | 2 | Y/N & categorical | X | |||||||||
3 | Ambugo, 2016 [46] | Remittances: money sent by migrants to family / friends living abroad or in the same destination country but in separate household | Interview | Eng | 2 | Y/N & continuous | X | ||||||
4 | Amoyaw, 2016 [30] | Redefining, reproducing, and maintaining ties with relatives and friends in the country of origin; remittances are the oldest and most popular form of transnational behavior | Interview | Eng (SL) Unspecified mother tongue (?)f | 3 | Y/N & continuous (converted to a categorical variable) | X | X | |||||
Calvasina, 2015 [31] | Medical transnationalism: returning to the country of origin for the sole purpose of obtaining healthcare; transnational dental care = seeking dental care across national borders, and can involve opportunistic dental visits while traveling to country of origin | 1 | Y/N | X | |||||||||
Shooshtari, 2014 [40] | Remittances: money sent by immigrants to family members in their country of origin | 2 | Y/N & continuous | X | |||||||||
5 | Araujo Dawson, 2010 [69] | Not provided | In-person self-completed survey, assistance provided as needed | Eng (SL) Spa (B)f | 21 | Average score computed | X | X | X | X | C = 0.84 | ||
Murphy, 2004 [13] | Maintenance of occupations / activities that necessarily require regular social contact over time across borders and / or cultures | In-person or online self-completed survey | Eng | 6-point Likert scale (0–5) | C = 0.87 | ||||||||
6 | Araujo Dawson, 2018 [32] | Back and forth migration (i.e. familial, political, economic, and social activities) between destination and country of origin | Telephone survey | Eng (SL) Spa (?) | 10 | Y/N (then scored out of 10) | X | X | X | X | |||
7 | Burholt, 2016 [65] | Process by which migrants forge and sustain multi-stranded social relations through the creation of cross-border networks | In-person interview | Eng (SL) Punjabi, Gujarati, Hindi, Mandarin, Bengali, Somali, Yoruba, Urdu (B) | 13 | Categorical & continuous (converted into a categorical variable using latent variable modelling) | X | X | |||||
8 | Chang, 2018 [55] | “Kirogi family”: a transnational living arrangement whereby one parent accompanies their child (ren) to an English-speaking country for educational purposes while the other remains in Korea to support them financially | Online or mailed survey | Eng (SL) Korean (B) | 1 | Y/N | X | ||||||
9 | De Jesus, 2013 [47] | Transnational healthcare use: seeking health care outside the US to overcome access barriers to healthcare | Telephone survey | Eng (SL) Spa (?) | 2 | Y/N | X | X | |||||
10 | Dito, 2017 [56] | Transnational parents: those that migrate and leave their child (ren) in the country of origin in the care of another family member, while also participating in raising their children across borders | In-person interview | Eng (?)g or Dut (?)g | 1 | Y/N | X | ||||||
Haagsman, 2018 [63] | Transnational families: when men / women migrate without their nuclear families (i.e. parents migrate while children remain in the country of origin in the care of others) | Eng (?)f,g or Dut (?)g Por (B)f | 2 | Y/N & categorical | X | ||||||||
Haagsman, 2014 [67] | 2 | Y/N & categorical | X | X | |||||||||
Haagsman, 2015 [57] | 1 | Y/N | X | ||||||||||
Mazzucato, 2017 [59] | 2 | Y/N | X | X | |||||||||
White, 2019 [62] | Transnational families: families who live apart but retain a sense of collective welfare and identity across national borders | Eng (?)f,g or Dut (?)g | 2 | Y/N & categorical | X | X | |||||||
11 | Djundeva, 2020 [33] | Migrants actively construct multiple social relations that bring the country of origin and destination country together | Online survey & computer-assisted personal interview | Dut (SL) Polish (?) | 5 | Y/N & continuous | X | X | X | X | |||
Van den Broek, 2017 [50] | Transnational relationships: migrants with a partner living abroad | 2 | Categorical | X | |||||||||
12 | Flippen, 2015 [70] | Process of exchange, connection, and mobility across national borders | In-person interview | Eng (SL) Spa (?) | 2 | Y/N & categorical | X | X | |||||
13 | Gherghina, 2020 [66] | Return intentions: the result of integration in the destination country, transnationalism, and the interaction between the two Transnationalism: attachment to the country of origin | Online survey | Not specified | 1 | Y/N | X | ||||||
14 | Greder, 2009 [52] | Means by which migrants maintain connections with their country of origin while continuing to develop relationships in destination communities | In-person interview | Eng (SL) Spa (T)f | 5 | Y/N (then scored out of 5 and then converted to a categorical variable) | X | X | X | ||||
15 | Horn, 2020 [58] | A phenomenon where migrants, through daily activities, forge and sustain multi-stranded social, economic, and political relations that link together their societies of origin and settlement | In-person interview or self-report survey | Not specified: Maybe Spa (SL)g | 6 | Y/N & categorical | X | X | X | X | |||
16 | Humphries, 2009 [51] | Remittances: money sent by migrants to their families in the country of origin | Mailed survey | Eng | 3 | Y/N, continuous & categorical | X | ||||||
17 | Jang, 2017 [54] | The extent to which migrants maintain links to their homeland; Medical transnationalism: receiving medical care from the country of origin (may not require migrants to actually visit) | Self-report survey | Eng | 2 | Y/N & categorical | X | X | |||||
18 | Johnson, 2008 [64] | Remittances: money / goods sent to relatives in the country of origin | Self-report survey | Eng (SL) Ara (T) | 3 | Continuous & categorical | X | ||||||
19 | Kempainnen, 2018 [35] | Cross-border healthcare: returning to the country of origin for healthcare | In-person interview | Finnish (SL) Russian (?)f | 1 | Y/N | X | ||||||
20 | Klok, 2017 [36] | Transnational belonging: sense of belonging directed to own group in the country of origin | In-person interview | Dut (SL) Turkish (O)f Moroccan (O)f Ara/Darijia (O)f Tarafit (O)f | 6 | Categorical (but each item was treated as a score) | X | X | X | cultural identity: C = 0.67; feelings of loss: C = 0.70 | |||
21 | McCabe, 2017 [60] | Transnational parenting: separation of families, particularly of mothers from children | In-person interview | Eng (SL) Spa (?)f | 1 | Y/N & categorical | X | ||||||
22 | Miranda, 2005 [61] | Transnational separation: parents (mothers) migrating and leaving their child (ren) behind | In-person interview | Eng (SL) Spa (?)f | 1 | Y/N | X | ||||||
23 | Nielsen, 2012 [48] | Patient mobility: patients’ deliberate movements across international borders to seek planned healthcare | Computer-assisted telephone interview or online survey | Eng (?)g or Danish (?)g Turkish (B)f | 2 | Y/N | X | ||||||
24 | Pannetier, 2017 [37] | Cross-border family separation and transnational ties particularly in the form of financial transfers | In-person interview | French (SL) Unspecified mother tongue (O)e | 2 | Y/N & categorical | X | ||||||
25 | Razum, 2019 [38] | Migrants have resources at their disposition that relate to transnational ties / practices that connect them to their country of origin; transnationalism may vary in degree and vary across social life, familial, economic, sociocultural, or political spheres | Interview | Not specified: Maybe German (SL)g | 7 | Y/N (then scored out of 7 and then converted to a categorical variable) | X | X | X | X | |||
26 | Samari, 2016 [39] | Social, material, and emotional support migrants exchange with their countries of origin | In-person interview | Eng (SL) Ara (B)f | 21 | Y/N & categorical (Average score then computed for each dimension) | X | X | X | X | cross-border attitudes: C = 0.72; media consumption: C = 0.63; social ties: C = 0.65; community organizations: C = 0.84 | ||
27 | Snel, 2006 [68] | Transnational migration: pattern of migration in which migrants settle in a new country while maintaining ongoing social connections with their country of origin; people living their lives across international borders | In-person interview | Preferred language of migrants from Morocco, Dutch Antilles, Iraq, former Yugoslavia, Japan, and the United States (?)f,g | 17 + 50 statements on identity | Y/N & categorical (Scores were also calculated) | X | X | X | X | X | sense of belonging to home country: C = 0.81; norms and values of home country: C = 0.86; norms and values of international diaspora: C = 0.84 | |
28 | Su, 2012 [49] | Cross-border health utilization: physically seeking healthcare across borders | Telephone interview | Eng Spa (?) | 2 | Y/N | X | ||||||
29 | Torres, 2013 [41] | Participation of activities in or related to migrants’ country of origin, may include a range of dimensions (i.e. economic, political, cultural) | Telephone survey | Eng (SL) Spa (?)f | 5 | Y/N | X | X | |||||
30 | Torres, 2018 [42] | Migrants maintaining social connections to family / friends both locally and in their countries of origin | In-person interview | Eng (SL) Spa (?) | 1 | Categorical | X | ||||||
Torres, 2016 [44] | Social, political, economic, and cultural spaces formed and reworked by migrants in the destination and country of origin, and the flow of capital, goods, ideas, and individuals within these spaces | 2 | Categorical | X | |||||||||
31 | Vaquera, 2011 [45] | The development of networks, activities, and patterns of living that span origin and destination countries | Telephone survey | Eng (SL) Spa (T) Haitian Creole (T) | 8 | Categorical | X | X | X | X | |||
32 | Wang, 2015 [53] | Medical transnationalism: migrants’ efforts to maintain and make use of transnational ties with the country of origin in managing their health and well-being | Interview | Eng (SL) Korean (T)f | 8 | Y/N | X | X | X | ||||