Table 3 Definitions & attributes of twinning from the literature

[19] AIHA, 2010

mixed

a partnership that links two entities with shared characteristics to achieve a common goal’

Y

sharing

Y

peer relationships

Y

Y

–

[20] Breiddal, 2009

mixed

‘a professional and social collaboration between organizations in different countries to achieve mutual benefits through combined efforts and a common vision’

Y

reciprocity

Y

developing friendships with like-minded people

E

Canada

sub-Sahara Africa

Y

fundraising by ‘Western’ partner, provide one way assistance

[21] Busse, 2013

mixed

‘ when two or more academic institutions or community organizations share collective knowledge and resources to address issues and concerns’

Y

reciprocity

Y

builds collective efficacy

Y

Ethiopia & USA

Y

–

[23] Cadée, 2013

midwives

methodology of mutual exchange between different organisations

Y

reciprocity

Y

being like sisters

Y

Netherlands & Sierra Leone

Y

–

[28] Chiu, 2005

nurses

none

N

E

Y

Malaysia & Australia

N

obtaining bachelor degree, one way visit

[24] Dawson,2014

midwives

partnerships through pairing organisations

Y

mutual learning & ownership

Y

immersing each other’s practice

Y

E

–

[29] Foster, 2013

nurses

none

Y

mutual respect and dialogue

Y

compassion fatigue

Y

USA & Dominican Re-public

Y

–

[48] Hopkins, 2013

nurses, physicians

two-way transfer of expertise, advice, knowledge and skills

Y

mutual respect from both sides of the partnership is

crucial.

N

Y

Y

–

[18] ICAD, 1999

nurses, physicians

uses WHO 2001 definition:

a formal substantive collaboration between two organisations’

Y

a 2 way process, win-win

Y

N

Canadian & different ‘southern’ partners

Y

North/South connections

[5] ICM, 2014

midwives

a two-way mutually beneficial exchange between two member Midwives Associations.

It is a formal and substantive collaboration between two organisations’[7]

Y

collaborative relationships, mutual learning

Y

being like sisters

(no big or little sister)

Y

Canada & Tanzania, Sierra Leone & The Netherlands

Mali & Switzerland

Papua new Guinea & Australia

Japan & Philippines

Y

–

[16] Foster, 2009

physicians

none

E

E

E

E

matching organisations

[25] Ireland, 2015

midwives

none

Y

reciprocity

Y

Y

Nepal & England

E

one way help

[30] Jiang, 2015

nurses

A collaborative relationship between 2 similar organizations.

Y

mutual respect

Y

Y

China & USA

Y

dynamic cooperative atmosphere

funding by ‘Western’ partner

[17] Kohi, 2010

nurses

none (matching)

?

N

Y

Tanzania & US

N

matching organisations

[22] Macdonagh, 2002

mixed

The establishment of a formal link between a specific department/ institution in the UK and a corresponding department/institution in the developing world

Y

mutuality

E

Y

Tanzania & UK

Y

help from a developed country

[33] Qaddoumi, 2009

physicians

none

Y

mutual relationship

E

Y

Jordan & Canada

Y

help from a developed country

[26] RCM, 2015

midwives

none

Y

reciprocity and mutuality

Y

sisterhood

Y

England & Nepal

Scotland & Uganda

Wales & Cambodia

E

–

[49] Herschderfer, 2012

midwives

two midwifery organisations and 40 midwives are linked with the joint aim of improving maternal health, basing the relationship on reciprocity

Y

reciprocity

Y

Being like sisters

Y

Netherlands & Sierra Leone

Netherlands & Morocco

Y

–

[32] Veerman, 2005

physicians

twinning is an established form of cooperation between resource rich and resource limited countries.

E

N

Y

Indonesia & The Netherlands

E

–