Table 1 The intersection between various components of disaster risk and types of DRR (Adapted from [3, 8])

Hazard e.g., high air pollution

prevent future hazard from occurring e.g., investing in renewable energy sources to prevent future air pollution

mitigate current hazard levels e.g., reducing existing air pollution by replacing diesel vehicles with electric vehicles that are powered by renewable energy

increase resilience to hazard (general population or community) e.g., making polluted cities more livable, such as by increasing the number of green spaces to allow exposed residents to more easily cope with high air pollution

Exposure e.g., people live in a highly polluted city

prevent future exposure e.g., create support for people to not have to move into polluted cities, preventing overpopulation in an area exposed to air pollution

mitigate current exposure e.g., an intervention (such as making rural areas more attractive) that support people to move out of overpopulated and polluted cities; e.g., transfer the hazard itself (such as a polluting factory) away from a densely populated area to a less populated area

increase resilience to past or present exposure (general population or community) e.g., preparedness actions, such as a warning system plan for days with very high air pollution

Vulnerability e.g., people who are impoverished or have a respiratory illness are unable to properly cope with the effects of air pollution

prevent future vulnerability from occurring (focus on specific vulnerable groups) e.g., vulnerability prevention within low-income areas: policy change to prevent deeper inequalities

mitigate current vulnerability (focus on specific vulnerable groups) e.g., policies that mitigate inequality and power imbalances. These interventions attempt to correct present vulnerabilities

increase the resilience of those who are particularly vulnerable (focus on specific vulnerable groups) e.g., financial assistance to single mothers who live in highly polluted cities; e.g., communicate with high-risk individuals (people with asthma or chronic respiratory diseases) to stay at home during days with critical levels of air pollution